Thread: for those interested in grape growing....

I will post up the rest of these as I get them.



GRAPES AND WINEMAKING MINICOURSE

Welcome to the 10-part e-course on Grapes and Winemaking. This e-course will give you some background information about grapes, how to grow them, either in a full scale vineyard or your own backyard, how to choose which variety to plant that is suitable for your land and winemaking, and finally, how to make your own wine.

LESSON 1 - STARTING AND PLANTING THE VINEYARD

In the language of grape growers and winemakers, the cultivation of grapes is called viticulture. It has been done for thousands of years and will continue to be so, to the delight of wine connoisseurs around the world. You can also experience this, as a small backyard home winemaker or even as a full time grower, managing a vast vineyard.
The best wines come from the best grapes and the best grapes can only come from vineyards with the right combination of factors affecting vine growth. Allowing for the best of these factors, you can be certain to produce the best quality grapes. And while modern technology could enhance the process of wine production, from growing grapes to its presentation in a bottle, or even marketing and other economic considerations, only the best-located and well-prepared vineyard can produce the best wines.
Selecting the vine – So you say to yourself, “Yes I can grow grapes and make my own wine. I’ve been enjoying drinking it for so long, it’s now time I make my own!”The first thing you need to know is your agricultural zone rating before you can successfully select vines for propagating. A zone rating is a number assigned to a specific region of land. There are several factors that come in to determining it, such as average minimum temperature.
Remember that you will have more success in growing grapes only if you select and plant a variety that thrives in your climate. Selecting otherwise will only end in disaster.
Your choice of the varieties to plant is also dependent on what kind of wine you want to make, plus the existing factors mentioned above. Are you going to make white wine or red wine? The choice depends mainly on your personal tastes and preferences, and the market you want to cater to.

Climate and Geography – Just as your body responds differently to varying temperatures; so do wine grapes. Climate is the single most important factor that influences the quality of wine grapes and how it is preserved. Hot and cold climates can affect wine quality to the point of spoilage and outright disaster. You must be sure to select grape varieties that ripen during the growing season. As much as possible, you should avoid growing grape varieties that mature during the hot summer months.
There are three climatic factors that should be considered essential:

• Climate of the region – the macro climate - refers to the regional minimum winter temperatures and summer temperatures range and humidity.
• Climate of the site in question – the meso climate - refers to the specific location,– the slope and the moderating effect of body of water.
• Climate of the grapevine itself – the micro climate - refers to the specific area, like area inside a canopy or around a cluster.

Choosing a Site for the Vineyard - The goal of establishing an ideal site for your vineyard is to have good grape-producing vines. You can only achieve this if you have the ideal site. As real estate agents have “location, location, location” as their battle-cry, so you should have it too. You need to know if the location has all the right properties, such as the optimal altitude for growing, the right angle of the sun for the vine to receive the most benefits of sunlight, adequate availability of water, soil chemistry, to name a few.
To get the most out of the land you have and what is available, you have to get the right land in the right place, and make sure that it’s potential to give you the crops you desire is present and you are able to take advantage of them.
Soil type - If you really want to be sure, the easiest way to know if the soil is suitable for planting a new vineyard and what you can plant in it, you should have a professional make a test on the soil. You can acquire this paid service from an expert and get a clear idea of what type of grapes would be suitable to plant on your land.
Ordering and planting grape stocks - The most suitable sources of grape stocks are nurseries that specialize in grape plants and grow the desired cultivars.

• You should order at least 6 months to a year before planting to ensure delivery.
• The best ones are the one-year old plants because they are healthy and have a well-developed fibrous root system.
• Two-year old or more nursery plants are often those that were too weak for selling at the end of one year and may grow poorly in the vineyard.

What we have discussed so far is actually the hardest part of grape growing. Once you have overcome the initial shock of finding out what you need to do and actually doing them, you only need to plan ahead to make things work.
In this ecourse we’re going to give the basic information you need to get started with a great hobby, and create a lifetime of fun and challenge. From my perspective growing your own grapes and then turning them into a fine wine is a totally rewarding experience.

Once you have established your vineyard, it is only a matter of maintaining what you have started to keep things going ahead. What you are going to do next will determine if you will have the best quality grapes for winemaking.
Time to prune - New growth may be held back if pruning is delayed during the dormant season. They will be saved from injury from spring frost. However, pruning must start early enough so that the entire vineyard is pruned properly. Late pruning may cause the occurrence of harmless “bleeding”. This modification helps in maintaining the vine’s vigor and sufficient fruiting wood. Crop production is affected by either deficiency or excess of good fruiting wood.
Pruning procedure - There is a simple way to prune the vines. The first step is to size the vine and estimate the weight of one year old wood. Select five to seven renewal spurs to be retained, and make sure that they are equally spaced on the cordon. Select fruiting canes to be retained and remove the rest. The second step is to determine how many buds to leave. To do this, weigh prunings from a vigorous vine and a weak vine. If too many buds remain after weighing, then prune to the desired number of buds. Because the first, and sometimes the second bud have unfruitful shoots, start counting the buds with the second or third bud.

Water Utilization - Grapes need little irrigation once they have established themselves in the vineyard. The vines should be placed where they can be watered heavily and deeply, but not frequently. Too much water can trigger chlorosis, a condition that indicates iron deficiency. It is characterized by pale, small, yellowed leaves with dark green veins. The first remedy is to reduce frequency of watering.

Fertilizer Requirements - Once the vines have been well-established, they do not need much fertilizer. They are not heavy feeders. To help stimulate young plants to size up for earlier fruit production, moderate amounts of fertilizer could be used during the first and second year after planting.

Weed Control - Unlike trees with deeply dug in roots, grapevines are shallow-rooted and, thus, more affected by weeds. To set the vine’s growth for the best yields, you need to control weeds. It is the single most important practice in vineyard care, especially in the early stages. It should be your primary concern in site preparation after selecting the land for your grapes. It should also be first in your list in vine management immediately after planting. Once you have eliminated perennial weed growth, it is only a matter of preventing those that develop from seeds.
Disease Control - Diseases limit the production of grapes. There is need for effective disease management for the vineyard to survive. Besides being costly, controlling them may have negative impact not only on the environment, but on the workers and eventual consumers of the produce. A balance must be struck between use of synthetic pesticides and the maintenance of production goals.
Pest Control Strategies - In order to successfully manage pests in your vineyard, you need to have:

1. A basic knowledge and understanding of the grapevine itself, how it grows and how it is propagated, including their hardiness and susceptibility to various pests and pesticides.
2. A working knowledge of the biology and life cycle of the flora and fauna that surround your vineyard, and how these creatures flourish or perish in their environment.
3. Information about the cultural, biological and chemical control strategies that can be used for grape production and how to effectively apply them.

It gets easier as you move along after you have put up your vineyard. The huge work and hours you have invested up to now will certainly be rewarded after you have consistently followed the required procedures. Now, you are ready to take up the next lesson on how to maintain your vineyard.

The difference between maintaining a successful vineyard and handling a failing one is seen on the quality of the grapes produced. Establishing a successful one is based not just on one factor, but a string of best practices you and your associates have implemented from day one to the harvesting of the vines. While it can be a difficult and challenging task, the rewards are more than just sweet grapes.
Knowledge and expertise requirements. Growing quality grapes require a high level of knowledge and understanding of all things related to the grapevine business. Among other things, you should know:

• Grapevine physiology and morphology because it helps in understanding how they grow and what factors affect their development, whether good or bad.
• The varieties of cultivars and how they differ from each other, and what particularly productive cultural practices are applied in their cultivation.
• The biology of diseases and pests that attacks the plant, how they multiply, survive, and become injurious and destructive to the plants.

Having these in mind, you can plan the strategies to combat the threats besetting the vineyard. Striving to have continuing education will carry the budding grower a long way to the table of success.
Managing Vineyard Rows And Aisles - Vineyard management has many aspects. You start by:

1. Surveying the site and taking into consideration the factors that will determine the row orientation, and spacing between and within rows.
2. In laying out the rows, turning space should be provided for the tractor or any equipment used in the training, pruning and harvesting process.
3. Will you be using mechanical means for these chores, or will it be by manual labor?
4. It is also important to look at the irrigation system to be implemented, as well as the drainage system, if required. The choice of one system or method will certainly influence your next choice of subsequent processes.

Vineyard Design and Layout - The optimal layout of a vineyard is usually in straight rows. A North-South direction is best as this orientation intercepts the maximum amount of sunlight. In sloping land, however, this cannot always be followed as this type of land may require contour planting or straight rows across the slope. You can obtain information from the USDA Soil Conservation Service and State Extension Specialist on how to design vineyards on sloping sites.
Canopy Management - The grapevine canopy consists of the shoots, leaves and fruit. It is important to create a harmonious interrelationship of these elements so that the grapevine will produce fruits with the desired properties.
With the correct training system, the canopy with the best characteristics would have most of its leaves well-exposed to sunlight, with good air circulation. Such a canopy promotes abundant fruitfulness and good ripening, aside from rapid drying after rain or dew and lower humidity. These characteristics provide the best defense against fungal disease development.
Vine balance. It starts with a good vineyard design, which includes:

1. Correct vine and row spacing.
2. Use of the appropriate training and trellis system.

Once balance is achieved, the vineyard does not require much canopy management. You only need to maintain it by standard pruning, some shoot thinning, and shoot positioning as required by some training systems.
You have just completed the first part of this mini-course. While growing grapes is an end itself and gives great rewards for those who toil in the vineyard, it is only a part of an excitingly inebriating task. You are now ready to embark on this wonderful world of winemaking.

For the serious beginner and home winemaker, it’s always best to start with a wine making kit. Because the kit comes with everything needed, winemaking is fun and so much easier. You can create your own winemaking kit bought from any commercial winemaking store. Be sure that your kit contains most, if not all, of the following:

Primary Fermentation Buckets - to keep the must contained during fermentation and to keep all other foreign matter out of the wine. You must be sure that bucket is a food grade plastic, preferably without prior use.

Airlocks - a device attached to a container that lets gasses come out, but not in. This is important especially during the slower, secondary fermentation, usually done in a carboy. It keeps the air out, but allows the carbon dioxide to escape.
Secondary Fermentation Carboys - This is a big glass bottle that resembles the bottles used in bottled water machines. With the carboy, you will need a long-handled brush that fits into its mouth and reaches the bottom. Carboys must be sanitized before use and before storage.
Chemistry Tools
Acid test kit to measure total acidity (TA). A triple-scale hydrometer to measure the specific gravity of the wine. A pH meter to measure pH level. Racking Tools - This is basically a plastic hose, one end of which is placed down into the wine in the original container, and the other end into the carboy where the wine will be transferred, usually located on a lower level. You suck in slowly on the tube that’s on the lower level carboy until the wine is halfway down the tube. Once wine flows freely, you must immediately get it inside the empty carboy as fast as possible. You could get a few mouthfuls on your first attempts, so you might want to practice with water beforehand.
Measuring Tools - There are times when you may need to add ingredients to adjust certain characteristics of your wine. This process is called “amelioration”. It is important to accurately measure the quantity of these ingredients.

• A Kitchen Scale: For measuring ingredients, such as sugar, by weight. It is essential that you have a scale that is accurate to the gram.
• Measuring Spoons: You can use either plastic or stainless steel. Included in the set should be a ¼ and 1/8 teaspoon measures.
• Beakers and Flasks: Glass containers used to test the wine. These are particularly useful if you are using a pen-style pH meter.
• Pyrex Measuring Cups: In 1-cup, 2-cup, 4-cup, and 8-cup sizes.
• A Floating Thermometer: This type of thermometer is weighted to stick up above the must in the primary fermentation vessel. Used to monitor temperature of fermentations.

Wine Presses - used to press the last of the wine from the grape skins after the primary fermentation, and before the secondary fermentation. The cheapest type is called a basket press. It has a basket that holds the wine skins; and pressure is applied by screwing a top piece down to compress them. You can also use a nylon mesh straining bag if you don’t have a wine press.

Barrels - In modern wineries, wine only spends a few months in oak barrels, the primary purpose of which is to impart the special taste of oak to the wine. For home winemakers, extra care must be taken as they risk overpowering the more subtle flavors of the with a heavy oak taste. There are alternatives to barrel aging such as oak chips, oak tubes, oak staves and oak dust.

Bottling - This can be done with minimal equipment such as a siphon hose (which could be the same one you used for racking). You can siphon the wine from the carboy where you have been bulk aging the wine into the bottles. You can opt to use commercial bottling equipment instead. Bottles must not be overfilled, as the cork may not want to go in. Under-filling, on the other hand, will leave enough air in the bottle capable of spoiling the wine.
Tools are great to make your task easier, but nothing takes the place of old fashion talent and perseverance. Winemaking is not just about wine presses and barrels. It involves the heart of the winemaker to come up with a wine worthy of the king’s palate. Now on to
harvesting grapes at their peak point.

There’s always a time for everything , and this is even truer for harvesting grapes. If you harvest too soon or too late and you will end up with grapes----just grapes.
When to Harvest - Harvesting is usually done in the fall. There are three important determining factors for you to make this decision:

1. Sugar levels (brix)
2. Tannin development (seed color and taste) and
3. Acidity

Then there is also the weather to account for. It determines whether a year is going to be a “good vintage” or not. Proper timing of the harvest is essential because of its effect on grape composition. Harvesting grapes prematurely will result in thin, low-alcohol wines. Done very late, and wines with high-alcohol, but low-acid content, will be produced.
How to pick grapes - There are two ways to harvest the grapes. They can be picked either by hand or by machines. Growers choose one over the other for different reasons. Machine harvesters are quicker, but have the disadvantage of indiscriminately picking up of foreign non-grape material. Hand picking is more time consuming and costly, but will yield a better product selection.
Ripeness Of Grapes - One determining factor for grape ripeness is color change. However, there are grapevines that do change color long before they change their flavor. Another factor is the size and firmness of the berry. Most grapes should become slightly less firm to the touch when they become ready. But this varies depending on the cultivars individual characteristics.
The most effective way to tell the ripeness of the grape is its sweetness. Tasting them directly picked from the vine is best. While other fruits continue to become sweeter even after being picked, grapes don’t after they are cut from the vine. They will not ripen any further
.
Sugar - Grapes have high sugar content, usually 20 percent when ripe. Most grapes contain about equal amounts of glucose and fructose.
Grapes develop in four distinct stages:

1. Green stage – at this point, the green berries grow rapidly by cell division. Little sugars develop, although, a lot of acids begin to accumulate.
2. Rest stage – cell division is slowed down considerably, as well as the growth rate.
3. Veraison stage – here the berries change color and soften. There is an increase in berry size by expanding cell volumes. The acid levels decrease, but water, sugars, aromas and flavors increase.
4. Dehydration stage – at this stage the berries soften, and some may have slightly wrinkled skins. Sugar production is halted, but brix may continue to increase slowly as the berries lose water. For most winemakers, it is better to pick white grapes late in the veraison stage (20-23.5 brix) but will pick red grapes early in the dehydration stage (23.5 – 25 brix)

Acidity - One of the major components of wine that affects balance is acidity. Enologists divide acidity of wine into three categories:

1. Total acidity – takes into account all of the acids in wine.
2. pH – a quantitative assessment of fixed acidity, which is measured as total acidity minus volatile acidity.
3. Volatile acidity – its amount is small compared to total acidity; it is closely associated with quality; its measurement indicates spoilage.

A perfect balance of these three components will result in the best wines. It is your job to exploit this to your advantage. You can do this by learning now how to actually make wines.

The art of winemaking has centuries of history behind it. It has evolved from simple homebrews from grapes harvested from backyard vineyards of old, to big modern wineries producing thousands of bottles each year. From harvesting to bottling, the wine has to undergo a process not dissimilar to diamonds in order to come out with the best aroma and flavor to delight wine drinkers. It is now time for you to learn it the easy way. But first, let us discuss some preliminary information about winemaking.
Alcoholic Fermentation - In winemaking, alcoholic fermentation, also known as primary fermentation, refers to the conversion of sugar into carbon dioxide gas and ethyl alcohol. It reveals the hidden quality of the grape – especially the aroma. It starts as soon as the sugary grape juice is exposed to the yeast
Fermentation requires two things: sugars and yeasts.

• Sugar. The level of sugar in the grapes from which the wine is made determines the level of alcohol in the finished wine. The presence of more sugar means more for the yeast to work on and convert it to alcohol.

• Yeast. There are many varieties of yeast strains coming from different places. The type of yeast used contributes significantly to the aroma of the finished wine.

The most common type used is Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. This type is also used for beer fermentation and for bread leavening.
Malolactic Fermentation - Also known as MLF---- malolactic fermentation is a very natural process. It is done by certain types of bacteria capable of metabolizing malic acid leading to the production of lactic acid and carbon dioxide.
Effects of malolactic fermentation in wine - Thousands of malolactic bacteria exist, some of them having better effects on wine than others. While some wineries will choose to use one strain over the other, the desired result for all types is a wine that is softer in taste and has greater complexity. Red wines usually undergo this process, while it is discretionary for white wines.
Winemakers will usually elect to have this process applied to a particular wine for the following reasons:

1. To add stability to a wine.
2. To lower the acidity of a wine.
3. To alter the character and flavor of a wine.

Malolactic fermentation is usually applied to the big, heavy red wines such as Pinot Noir, Merlot and Cabernet. White wines, on the other hand, are considered to be inappropriate for an MLF.

Racking - Racking simply refers to the process of siphoning the wine must from one container to another clean secondary container (usually a carboy). Doing so leaves all the sediments, also called lees, behind in the original container. This is the sole purpose of racking, although it also helps clarify the wine and enhance flavor
This information, although basic, actually is what you need to understand the winemaking process as a whole. But it will only make sense in the presence of grapes and vats and the smell of fermenting grape juice.
Now on to making wines-------

White wine, although universally recognized as such, is in fact more yellow than white. The process to produce white wine is more delicate than that of red wine.
There are two methods for producing whites:

1. Using white grapes. The resulting white wine is from the fermentation of the must from white grapes only.
2. Using red-grape variety. This is more complex and seldom done. The must obtained from red grapes is cleared of skin, stems and seeds, which must absolutely have no contact with it because they contain the coloring substances.

Harvesting The Grapes - The time to pick the grapes for white wine production depends on the variety that was planted and the desired style of the finished wine. Timing is important, as they need to be picked at right time of the day to ensure the right balance between acids and sugars. To prevent bruising, the grapes are picked carefully. They are first placed in a cleaner that removes foreign non-grape matter.
Some types of grapes are more acidic that others and need more time on the vine to produce more sugar. Other varieties that are destined to be produced with lower alcohol content do not need the same amount of sugar during fermentation. White grapes tolerate the cool climates better than reds.
As far as diseases are concerned, white grapes have a higher tolerance against infection without compromising quality. An infection of “dry” botrytis can, in fact, improve wine with many varieties.
Sorting - Grapes are harvested as whole clusters in the vineyard. Because of this, many other non-desirable and foreign matters are also picked up. When the grapes arrive at the winery, they are sorted for quality. Grapes destined to be made into white wine skip the destemming process. Whole cluster pressing of white varieties accentuate a more delicate flavor, fruitiness and aroma. However, destemming white grapes can add greater tannin extraction and more body.
Juicing - Immediately after their arrival in the cellar, the grapes are crushed. At this point, all skins and stems are removed. The resulting juice (free run must) is sent to settle in containers. The rest of the grapes is pressed as quickly as possible. As air is the enemy of white wine, contact with it must be minimized because during oxidation, the wine becomes colored.

Racking - The sediment that accumulates at the bottom of fermentation containers is called “lees. To separate clean wine from the lees, a decanting process called racking is used. This is done several times until the wine comes out clean, clear and just right for bottling. White wines are usually racked shortly after the completion of alcoholic fermentation. It is repeated after the wine has been hot and cold stabilized.

Bentonite - Bentoniteis usually added to white wines for clarification fining and to remove excess proteins. All wines contain proteins of different types, but in wines with little tannin, some of these proteins coagulate and form a granular precipitate when warmed. This makes the wine hazy. No damage is done to the wine and the sediment formed is odorless, but a hazy wine is not good to look at and may offend consumers.

Fermentation - After extraction of the juice, the liquid is held in a stainless steel vat. Here, the yeasts turn sugar into alcohol. Winemakers have a choice of whether to use the naturally occurring yeast that is found in the grapes or use cultured yeast. The fermentation process generally takes from 3 to 4 weeks.
The ultimate goal of fermentation is to keep finesse and the quality of aroma. This can only be achieved with a thorough control of the temperature range during the process, usually between 60 degrees F to 68 degrees F. This range will allow the optimal aroma development, including the slow transformation of sugar and an excellent production of alcohol. The fermentation process can stop and be made difficult if lower temperatures are allowed to persist. On the other hand, higher temperature will make fermentation overly active, resulting in the loss of refined aromas and you will get a coarse and ordinary wine.
Now you know that white wines are not really white. But who cares? What really matters is the aroma and flavor of white wine in your mouth.
Now on to how to make red wines.

Red wine gets its color from the skins of the grapes. They are fermented in contact with solid materials from the grape (like the skin, seeds and pulp), in order to extract the compounds that give the wine its color, body, and depth of flavor and aroma.
Picking The Grapes - The making of at least a good red wine starts by having the grapes perfectly ready for picking. They must only be harvested at the proper time in their life cycle to ensure that acid and sugar levels are at the right balance. The condition of the berries when they were harvested is quite crucial to obtaining the best quality wines.
Sorting, De-Stemming And Crushing - De-stemming refers to the removal of the stems from the grape bunches, as many of them as possible (at least 90%). Crushing of the grapes refers to the process that exposes the juices to the yeast for fermenting. They don’t need to be mashed, just sufficiently split to allow the yeast in to do its work. It also exposes the skins so they can give color to the wine during the primary fermentation.

Fermentation - Although fermentation is a natural process, it will not be successful if any native wild yeast and bacteria on the grapes are not removed prior to the addition of your special winemaking yeast. These unwanted elements can start the fermentation alright; but, in the end, they generally produce some terrible off flavors and aroma in the wine.

Maceration - This is the stage where the tannic elements and the color of the skin disperse in the fermented juice, giving the wine its body and color. For new wines, the maceration process is very short. Those that are destined to be kept long need a lot of tannin, so they undergo a long period of maceration, perhaps several days or even several weeks.

Pressing - During fermentation, the wine extracts everything it needs from the seeds and skins. After its completion, it is time to press. This should be done in a timely manner, because a continued and prolonged contact with solid contents might cause undesirable off-flavors and, thus, ruin the wine.
Transferring Pressed Wine to a Storage Vessel - The pressed wine is then transferred to a temporary storage container. You can simply pour the wine using a food grade bucket with a handle or a pump, usually, into a carboy. The carboy must be filled almost to the top, as this will minimize the surface area that is exposed to any oxygen in the headspace. As the wine may expand due to temperature changes, you have to leave a space 1 – 1.5 inches below the stopper.
Settling - When primary fermentation is completed, the wine will be crushed again and racked into another container for the malolactic fermentation stage. The wine is then transferred to another settling tank, where it will remain for one to two months. During settling, the weighty unwanted debris settles to the bottom of the tank and is usually removed when the wine is transferred to another container. The settling process produces smoother wine.
After the settling process, the wine is made to pass several filters or centrifuges where it is stored at low temperatures or where clarifying substances trickle through the wine. It is then aged in stainless steel tanks or wooden vats.
When to initiate Malolactic Fermentation - The rule of thumb is the end of primary fermentation. This is important because if malolactic bacteria ferment in the presence of sugar and most of the nutrients have been used up by the yeast, the bacteria could degrade the sugar and volatile acidity may ensue.
For sure, among the many types of wines, red wine is among the best. But it will only be proven true and real after it has been bottled and brought to our table.
How to bottle your wine is next.

Wines come to our table bottled, labeled, all in a nice and neat little package, and ready to be served, either chilled or at room temperature. A bottled wine’s history is reflected on that bottle, impressing the wine drinker even before its flavor and aroma have started to weave their magic. There are a lot of options and techniques that the winemaker can choose from to employ in this final stage; but, in the end, it is always a matter delivering the wine with the best quality.
So2 Levels At Bottling - Inadequate SO2 levels cause wine spoilage. Only the correct amount of SO2 in wine can stop the deterioration of wine quality due to undesired yeast and bacterial activities. It also helps in the protection of wine against oxidation. By the time your wine is ready for bottling, your main concern is to make sure that the SO2 is at the appropriate level and that you have taken steps to prevent exposing the wine to air as much as possible during the bottling process.
Calculating the SO2 Addition - The purpose of SO2 addition is to find out the least amount needed in order to obtain a beneficial saturation level, and at the same time avoid adding too much which will make the wine have off-flavors and a foul aroma. The point to remember is that the higher the pH, the more SO2 will be needed; and the lower the pH, the less SO2 will be needed to achieve the ideal level. The total amount of SO2 in a finished bottled wine should be the least amount required, but always seek to have less than 100 ppm total in the finished bottled wine
If you don’t have a pH meter, you can use ¼ teaspoon per 5 gallons for the generic level. You may actually need to use a little more or less, but this amount will have you covered.
Remember that it usually takes about two months for the wine to get over the shock of sulfite addition and the bottling. Wait after this period before trying to taste the wine.
Sulphur levels in different types of wine

• Red wines naturally contain antioxidants acquired from their skins and stems during fermentation, so they don’t need any added sulphur dioxide. Some conventional winemakers do add some in spite of this.

• White wines and rosés have no natural antioxidants since they were not allowed to be in contact with their skins after crushing. They are, therefore, more likely to get oxidized and, for this reason, they tend to receive larger doses of SO2.

• Sweet wines receive the largest doses of SO2 because sugar combines with and binds a high proportion of sulphur dioxide added to them. To obtain the same level of free sulphur dioxide, the total concentration has to be higher than for dry wines.

Bottling Process - The bottles should be rinsed, cleaned and sanitized. You also need to have the corks at hand and the corker ready to do its job.
Once the bottles and other tools are ready, you can start filling and corking the bottles. For filling the bottles, you can use the same racking set up that you used before. Fill the bottles in such a way that you leave a ½ inch of airspace between the cork bottom and the wine. This is important because leaving more airspace means having more air that could possibly ruin the wine.
There are some options that you can choose from when it comes to bottling your wines. You can select the bottle’s color, the type of corker to use, or even the style of the cork itself. There’s also an assortment of decorative neck seals and bottle labeling to make it more exciting for you and add a professional touch to your product.
Information on the label - The following can be found on the label of a wine produced in the U.S.:

1. Geographical origin: country or state, vineyard or viticultural area
2. Bottle size/volume: a regular bottle of wine is 750 ml
3. Alcoholic strength by volume: ranges from about 8.5% to 15%
4. Type of wine: such as table wine or dessert wine
5. Vintage year: year the grapes used to make the wine were harvested.
6. Name and address of the wine producer
7. Specific bottling information: where the wine was bottled. For example, estate bottled (made from grapes grown in vineyards owned by the winery)
8. The name of the wine: may be named after the variety of grape it was made from such as Chardonnay or Cabernet Sauvignon, or for the region where it was made; or it can be given a name created by the producer
9. Government warning: pertaining to pregnant women, ability to drive, and general health
10. "Contains Sulfites": a warning to those who may be allergic

After you finally have a drink of your wine, you know that it is only going to get better as it ages. There are wines that need more years to achieve their potentials, while others can be consumed immediately and you can already enjoy their flavor and aroma. Still, however, it is only with aging that they can acquire all those extra flavors, roundness and complexity.

Wine production has become a global industry comprised of many types and styles. Name brands are determined by the type of grape and where they were cultivated geographically and the year they were produced.
Red wine is produced when skins were left for a long time. White wine is produced if skins were left on for a short period. By moderating between the two, rose/blush wines are produced.
In countries where winemaking is seriously monitored, the amount of a particular grape that makes up a particular wine is regulated. In some US states, any wine referred to by the name of the grape (Chardonnay, for example) must be at least 75% of that grape.
Wines are not simply reds or whites. Indeed, red wines and white wines have their differences, but it is the variety of wine within each group that reveals the details about their taste. Sub-categories exist.
White wines generally go well with seafood, chicken, turkey, Chinese food and, sometimes, pork. Red wines, on the other hand, go well with red meats such as beef, roasts and filets, lamb, duck, veal, pastas and sausages. This rule, however, is not absolute.
There are types of white wines that also go well with red meat, as there are also types of red wines that could be perfect for seafood. These generalizations are quick guidelines only developed by professionals within the wine community. You can experiment with different types of wines and food combinations.
Table Wine or Still Wine - Under US labeling law, table wine is any still, non-sparkling wine with an alcohol content of up to 14%. A wine whose alcohol level is above 14% but below 24%, must be classified either as a dessert wine or as a naturally-occurring, high-alcohol wine. A fortified wine with a similar alcohol level may be classified as a still wine.
Fortified Wines - These are wines which have been blended with neutral grape brandy or alcohol. The brandy may be added to either stop the fermentation process to make it sweet and retain more residual sugar (Port, for example), or after fermentation to increase the wine’s alcohol level (Spanish Sherry, is one example).

Aromatized Wines - These are flavored and fortified wines. Winemakers use extracts of different herbs and spices as flavoring agents. These include chamomile, orange peel, coriander and hyssop. The ingredients are normally blended and added to a neutral base wine. The wine is then filtered after it has settled and integrated with the flavorings. These type of wines are best served chilled or muddled. The best example is Vermouth.
Sparkling wines - These are wines that contain bubbles of carbon dioxide, bottled under pressure. The carbon dioxide many result from natural fermentation, either in the bottle itself or in a large tank designed for such purpose. It can also be produced by injecting carbon dioxide in the wine.
It would be a time consuming task if we are going to list all the various types of wines made and imported from all around the globe. Some of these types have been with us since the beginning of winemaking history, while some of them were discovered accidentally or were invented to suit the winemaker’s taste buds.
Let’s say that what we have discussed here is just a foretaste of what you can actually have when you grow your own grapes and make your own wines. The information you have here is certainly not complete; but, hopefully, as in the effect of good wine, you will be tempted to try one more sip and have the desire to have more. So if you want more comprehensive and practical information on growing grapes and winemaking, get the e-book <insert URL here>. Soon you’ll be the toast and envy of all your wine-drinking friends.